Uperoleia laevigata

Detailed introduction

The smooth toadlet ( Uperoleia laevigata ) is a small, ground-dwelling frog native to Australia. Often called a "toad-like frog" due to its resemblance to a miniature toad, it is actually a true frog relative within the order Anura and is one of the most common small amphibians in eastern Australia.

Classification and nomenclature

• Chinese reference name: Smooth Ground Toad (general translation);

• English name: Smooth Toadlet;

• Scientific name: Uperoleia laevigata ;

• Family: Myobatrachidae → Genus: Uperoleia

Appearance and Identification Features

The smooth-skinned ground frog is a typical "small terrestrial frog," with a small size and a slightly stocky body.

• Size: Adults are typically about 2–3 cm in length, with females being slightly larger than males;

• Body shape: The body is short and wide, giving an overall impression of being "short and stout". The head is relatively short and the snout is blunt and rounded.

• Back color: The back is mostly grayish brown, brownish brown or olive brown, and may have small spots or cloud-like patterns of varying shades;

• Skin texture: Compared to some ground toads with more obvious warts, the back of the smooth ground toad is generally more delicate and has smaller granules, hence the name "Smooth".

• Abdomen: The abdomen is lighter in color, mostly milky white, grayish white or light yellow, and may have a few spots;

• Limbs: The limbs are short and powerful, with the hind limbs suitable for short-distance jumping. The webs in the toes are not well-developed, making them more adapted to life on land than to long-distance swimming.

• Spirals/Glands: Some individuals have glandular bulges or spots on both sides of the body, which is one of the important details for identifying species of the genus *Phallus*.

Distribution range and habitat

The smooth ground toad is a species endemic to the eastern coastal and near-inland regions of Australia .

• It is mainly distributed in eastern New South Wales and surrounding areas, and is commonly found in some woodlands, shrublands and farmland landscapes;

• It is commonly found in temperate and subtropical regions at low to medium altitudes.

Typical habitats include:

• Open woodlands, shrublands, grasslands, and forest edges;

• Surface environments near small ponds, temporary waterholes, drainage ditches, and seasonal wetlands;

• They often hide in leaf litter, under rocks, near fallen trees, or at the roots of weeds, which is a typical terrestrial lifestyle.

Lifestyle

The smooth-skinned ground frog is a nocturnal, terrestrial frog .

• During the day, they rest in sheltered places, such as deep in the leaf litter, in soil crevices, under rocks and fallen trees, to avoid dehydration and predators;

• They are most active from dusk to night, especially on damp and rainy nights;

• Their activity range is usually concentrated around water bodies and on damp ground, and their movement methods are mostly short jumps and slow crawling.

vocal characteristics

The calls of species in the genus *Gnaphalium* are very important for species identification. Male *Gnaphalium sclerophyllum* frogs emit short, rhythmic calls during the breeding season:

• The calls are usually a series of short, monosyllabic "chirp" or "tsk" sounds, with regular intervals;

• On rainy nights or during the humid season when breeding is possible, multiple male frogs often gather around a puddle and call out, forming a chorus.

• The frequency, rhythm, and timbre of their calls differ slightly from those of closely related species of ground toads, which is an important basis for herpetologists to identify species.

feeding habits

Like many small terrestrial frogs, the smooth-skinned frog primarily feeds on tiny invertebrates:

• Insects such as ants, small beetles, small flies, and mosquitoes;

• Small arthropods and larvae that inhabit the leaf litter layer;

• They capture palatable prey by moving slowly on the ground at night or by ambush.

Reproduction and Development

The reproductive activities of the smooth ground toad are closely related to rainfall:

• The breeding season usually occurs during warmer and rainier periods, when male frogs call out to attract female frogs near temporary puddles, ditches, and small ponds.

• Female frogs lay their eggs in still or slow-moving shallow water; the egg masses may attach to aquatic plants or sink to the bottom.

• Tadpoles develop in these small bodies of water, and after metamorphosis, they become small frogs, leave the water, and enter the surrounding terrestrial habitat.

Protecting the status quo and threats

In the current global assessment, the smooth ground toad is listed as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List, indicating that its overall population is not currently showing a significant downward trend.

Potential threats include:

• Small wetlands and temporary waterholes are filled in, drained, or polluted;

• The effects of pesticides and chemicals on tadpoles and adult frogs;

• Urban expansion and infrastructure development have led to habitat fragmentation.

Protecting remaining wetlands, preserving leaf litter and surface cover, and reducing pesticide and pollutant emissions help maintain healthy populations of the smooth-skinned frog and other small terrestrial frogs.